The Guitar Essentialist

An Instructional Handbook

for

Intermediate to Advanced Guitarists

L.M. Barre', PhD

For  my guitar demo, "Night Wind,"

go to

http://moon.dmusic.com

____________________________

Introduction

II. Theory

A. Diatonic Chords and Scales

B. Consonance and Dissonance

C. Shifting Note Value in the Diatonic Relationship

D. Improvising Over Diatonic Chord Progressions

E Diatonic Chord Progressions

F. Modes

G. Improvising over Chromatic Chord Progressions

H. Playing the Blues

I. Whole tone and Diminished Scales

III. Aesthetics

A. Elements of Music

B. Aesthetics and Improvising

1. Sound and Silence (presence)

2. Repetition and Variation (sequence)

3. Soft and Loud (volume)

4. Sparse and Dense (intensity)

5. Consonance and Dissonance (harmony)

6. High and Low (frequency)

7. Short and Long (duration)

8. Intervalic and Chromatic (interval)

C. Solo Construction

IV. Creativity

Introduction

This approach to guitar instruction divides the subject into four main areas: 1) technique; 2) applied theory; 3) aesthetics; 4) creativity. The discussion of technique covers melody (sounding single notes) and harmony (sounding two or more notes together [chords]).

The second section offers a practical approach to music theory as it applies to the guitar although it is applicable to any instrument. As far as guitar playing is concerned, I have found it especially important to provide an approach to theory that is simple, reducing theory to its most basic components. I am convinced that an overly theoretical approach is at odds with spontaneity, the latter aspect that lies at the heart of the creative process. Thus, the discussion of theory is designed to give the student essential theoretical principles in simple and therefore easily useable terms.

Perhaps the most neglected subject related to guitar instruction is that of aesthetics, a term which I am using to mean the study of musical "beauty." I am not of the school of thought that finds "beauty" only in the "eyes of the beholder." I rather think that good or "beautiful" music contains certain qualities that can be analyzed and emulated. This discussion will present an overview of basic elements of music and how these elements are utilized to produce sounds that are pleasing to the sensitive ear. In the third section, I will offer my own modest aesthetic philosophy. The student may or may not agree with my view but the discussion will hopefully stimulate some serious thinking about this important yet neglected subject.

Obviously, any form of music contains an element of creativity. In the brief fourth section, I discuss the creative process as it applies specifically to guitar performance. Experience has taught me that creativity can be either fostered or squelched. Here I offer some personal advice stemming from my quest to tap that elusive source of creativity that lies within.

By "technique’ I mean the systematic approach to developing dexterity, coordination and manual efficiency. Mastering the technical aspect of the guitar requires that one’s fingers are sufficiently strong and responsive to the directives of the brain. Furthermore, the activities of the two hands must be coordinated-they must be trained to work together. A well-developed left-hand technique will be handicapped by poor right hand abilities and visa versa. Technical progress therefore depends upon keeping the skills of the two hands in balance.

Efficiency is also a major consideration in developing technical skill. Misdirected finger activity will impede one’s progress, especially as one enters a more advanced stage in technical competence. Although inefficient practices may not impede progress initially, bad habits have a way of catching up with you. At that point, you will have to go back and undo bad habits before moving forward.

The development of technical skill is the least glamorous aspect of guitar playing. Yet it is the foundation of achieving the greatest freedom of creative expression. The more you are able to control the physical aspects of your instrument, the more you will be able to express yourself through it.

The development of technical skill, however, can be an exhilarating experience if the student is able to see himself or herself progressing at an acceptable rate. It is therefore important that one monitors progress by keeping the approach systematic, disciplined and focused. The following discussion of technique is designed to help achieve this task.

A. Melody (Playing single notes)

Here we are concerned with picking and fingering single notes to produce melodies. In this section on technique, we are not concerned with the "musical" aspect of creating melodies but only with developing left and right hand technical skills.

We begin with right hand picking technique. In teaching students as with myself, I have found that we are naturally drawn to developing left hand skills first to the disregard of right hand skills, probably because the movement of the left hand is more "dramatic." But a moment’s consideration shows that the left hand is dependent upon the right. The plucking of the strings determines the speed, intensity, tempo and general character of the sounded note. The left hand mostly determines the pitch. I would also add that the mastery of the right hand is the more difficult task, yet attention to the right hand usually yields rapid overall progress.

The fundamental skill concerning picking is that it be executed in a consistent, alternating pattern. Picking should always be done with alternating up and down strokes. This up-down pattern should never be broken until the skill is mastered and the practice is unconscious. Departing from alternate picking should be voluntary and reflect control, not a lack of it.

Here it is common for students to pick alternatively but to break the pattern when they move from one string to another. For example, when moving from the B string to the E string, the tendency is to move to the E string with a down stroke when the alternating pattern is calling for an upstroke. Similarly, the "natural" tendency when moving from a higher string to a lower one is to do so with an upstroke. This loss of efficiency will slow one’s speed considerably. Consistency is everything. After adequate training, an alternative picking pattern will become unconscious and yield greater clarity and speed leaving one to concentrate upon the left hand.

When developing picking skills, it is also important that the student pluck the string with "optimum" tension. The pick should be precisely parallel to the string. This will generate a strong, clear articulation of the note. One must work on resisting the temptation to strike the string at an angle until this skill is mastered and an angled pick attack is done deliberately.

It is also possible to over attack the string by placing the pick too deeply below the string. By this I mean that there is too much pick below the string when the string is plucked. This will create too much tension that will cause one to compensate by angling the pick, gripping the pick too loosely or by using a pick or a string of very light gauge. All of these "solutions" are actually compensations for an overly deep pick attack. The grip of the pick, the gauge of the pick and the gauge of the strings should all be decided upon after the depth of the pick attack has become optimum.

Finding the proper pick depth is a matter of experimentation. We are seeking to create just enough tension to produce a strongly and clearly sounded note. Too much tension will impede speed and too little tension will sacrifice power and clarity.

Maintaining an optimum pick angle and pick depth is difficult and yet both must and will eventually become habitual and unconscious with training. They are made difficult by the fact that playing the guitar involves moving from string to string. This vertical movement means that the guitarist must subtly adjust the position of the pick in order to maintain its optimum position. Add to this the quest to pick alternatively and you have a task that requires considerable coordination and dexterity. Yet, it is surprising how easy it is to achieve with practice.

I have found that the best way to develop good picking is simply to observe and listen to what it is like to pick as I have described. At what angle is the pick striking the string? What is the pick depth? How tightly do you grip the pick? Is the pick and string gauge right for you? Are you picking alternatively? Are you picking too heavily or too lightly? And as I have said, once you develop a basic right hand technique, you may then consciously depart from it for the desired special effects.

Three very fine electric "flat pickers" are Ritchie Blackmore, Robben Ford and especially Jeff Beck. In addition, almost all competent country players are masters of this subtle art, playing cleanly and powerfully articulated single notes at impressive speeds. In fact, all guitar virtuosos demonstrate that they have mastered right hand technique. While the left hand may steer the playing, the right hand is the engine.

Perhaps the best way to develop good picking technique is first to observe what it feels like to pick as I have described. Simply observe the "physics" of what is happening. Forget the left hand altogether and observe the plucking of the string. Train yourself to physically feel what a properly plucked string looks, feels and sounds like. Eventually, it will become an unconscious feel reinforced by the sound produced.

Picking is essentially rhythmic. Maintaining and even contributing to a powerful tempo is the hallmark of a master flat picker. Good picking should drive your solos, filling them with strength, clarity, power and conviction.

Finally, mastering the right hand will open up a host of possibilities for creative expression. Good control over the pick will allow one to explore the subtleties of varied pick attacks, adding a rare finesse to one’s playing. Hammering, popping strings, angling the pick and so on can now return to one’s technical toolbox because these otherwise "bad habits" are now under control.

Exercise

Using a metronome (always a good idea for practicing), pluck alternatively all six strings maintaining a parallel pick position and optimum pick depth. Start with the low E string and pluck it four times and then move to the A string, plucking it also four times. Move through all the strings and then reverse direction when you reach the high E string. Now repeat the same exercise except next pluck each string three times, then two times, then once. Increase the tempo slowly. Do not let speed become more important than clean technique. Find your limit and work from there. Clarity must precede speed. Do not tolerate any slop.

Although clean picking is fundamental for the technical mastery of the guitar, left-hand technique is far more complex. Here the task is to train the left hand to control the entire fretboard with the greatest speed and clarity. There are several schools of thought on the subject to which I wish only to add what best works for me.

It is a great oversight that many guitarists have no systematic approach to left-hand technique. Consequently, many guitarists are caught in a rut, unable to use the entire fretboard. This in turn hampers their creative expression. They become handcuffed, limited to play in only a few of their "favorite: positions. Perhaps the greatest limitation of an unsystematic approach is the inability to move up and down the neck smoothly through a variety of different "paths." The approach offered here is designed to train the student to play any note on the fretboard and to move in any direction, whether it be vertically or horizontally on the neck.

Mastering the fretboard is a two-step process. First, one must learn the fingerings of the seven positions. Second, one must learn how to move between the positions. Theoretically, that is all there is to it. The rest is a matter of developing dexterity.

We begin with a definition of what I mean by a left hand "position." For practical purposes, we will be playing in the key of G major since this key starts near the bottom of the neck and moves us near its top. (Once the positions are learned, they may easily be transferred to other keys.) For reasons that will become clear in our later discussion of theory, we will be playing the G major scale in all seven positions.

Let us start with some definitions:

Fingers are numbered 1-4:

index finger (1)

middle finger (2)

ring finger (3)

pinky finger (4)

The middle finger is used to define the position of the hand. To place the hand in the first position (in G), lay the tip of the middle finger on the low E string and lay it across the third fret. The other three fingers are place along the adjacent frets-the first finger across the second fret, the third finger across the fourth fret and the fourth finger across the fifth fret. The other positions are similarly located by moving the middle finger up the G major scale on the low E or sixth string.

The charts below lay out the notes and the fingers used for all seven positions. This will allow you to play portions of the G major scale in all position covering four octaves.

[Insert Charts]

The First Position

The Second Position

The Third Position

The Fourth Position

The Fifth Position

The Sixth Position

The Seventh Position

It is important to maintain proper finger posture. The fingers should be comfortably arched so that they press the string down with maximum efficiency. The finger pressure should be sufficiently strong to produce a clear tone. Keep the fingers in good posture, pressing firmly but without straining. It should not take long to develop both good finger posture and finger pressure. Do not collapse your arch and do not press too hard. Care taken here will eventually pay off in speed and clarity. It is also important to keep hand movements to a minimum. Instead, work at stretching the fingers to reach the notes.

This technique is simple. Always slide between positions by moving the first finger, whether sliding up or down. To incorporate this technique into your playing, begin by sliding between the first and second position of each of the six strings, sliding both up and down. The following charts illustrate moving between the first and second positions.

[Insert charts]

B. Harmony

1. The Right Hand (Strumming)

As with flat-picking right hand technique, it is important to understand and to experiment with the "physics" of strumming. Here one must learn to control the amount of friction that is generated by moving the pick across not one but several strings. Similar to flat-picking, the major factors that generate friction are the speed of the strum, the gauge of the pick, the depth of the pick, the angle of the pick relative to the strings, the gauge of the strings and how tightly the pick is held. The creation of a strong, smooth strum depends up controlling and coordinating these factors. The goal is to strum in such a way as to create the desired amount of friction. Too much friction will produce a harsh, uneven strum, while too little friction will produce limp, unarticulated chords.

Strumming is primarily rhythmic in nature. A developed strumming technique must therefore exhibit the same characteristics of effective percussion work-even tempo, "groove," volume dynamics, "feel," "drive" and so on. Guitarists do well to strum to a metronome or better to a competent drummer.

I use primarily two strumming techniques. The first and more common, especially with electric guitars, is to strum with a loose wrist. Here the hand is loose at the wrist and "flaps" or even "swats" at the strings. The movement is much like shaking a thermometer but with more control. The second keeps the wrist stiff with the up and down movement finding its pivot-point at the elbow.

Both techniques are useful. The choice to employ either wrist or elbow strumming depends upon what type of strum is called for in a given musical situation. For example, I have found that extremely fast strumming is better controlled by the elbow technique. Strumming from the wrist is more suited to playing more subtle types of strumming and seems more apt for use on electric guitars.

Chord articulation is another important aspect of rhythm guitar. By this, I mean how clearly the individual notes of the chord are sounded. If the pick moves across the strings quickly, the notes are less articulated. A slow strum (yet not an arpeggio) produces a strongly articulated chord. Articulated strumming is particularly useful for creating dramatic effects.

As with flat-picking, strumming for the most part should be performed in a consistent, alternating fashion. Accents are then added to the appropriate down and/or up strokes by generating more friction between the pick and the strings or by one or more of the methods mentioned above.

Finally, it should be noted that it is not necessary to play all six strings to produce a chord. This is particularly true concerning electric guitarists. I have found that a three or four note chord is often more suitable than a six note chord.

2. The Left Hand (Chord Shapes)

Because the guitar is able to produce an abundance of chords, it is important to take a systematic approach to chord formation. I have found that the easiest way to learn the greatest amount of basic chords with the least strain on the memory is to divide chord construction into four chord formations or shapes:

a) The E Shape

b) The A Shape

c) The D Shape

All four formations can create a variety of chords and chord types. In the case of the first two formations, the same shape can be used to create different chords by employing the barre. Chords types such as major, major seven, minor, minor seven, nt seven, and so on are constructed by minor variations of the fingerings of these barre chords.

a) The E Shape

The E Shape is based upon the fingering of the E major chord:

[Insert chart of E major]

This E shape is converted to a barre chord by substituting the second, third and fourth fingers for the first, second and third fingers. All three fingers are moved up a half step and a barre is added producing the F major barre chord:

[Insert F major barre chord chart]

Once the barre chord is constructed, it may be moved up and down the neck to produce every major chord in several inversions. The first finger’s position on the sixth string serves as an index to the chord being played. For example, if the first finger is on the third fret on the sixth string, then we know that a G major is being played. The same method can be used to created minor, minor sevenths, nt sevenths (of various kinds) and so on:

Em to Fm

[Insert charts]

Em7 to Fm7

[Insert charts]

E7 to F7

[Insert charts]

b) The A Shape

A similar method can be used to expand the student’s chord vocabulary based upon the A Shape. Here, however, because it is physically difficult to place three fingers within one fret, a second barre is used. We start with a basic A chord:

[Insert chart]

Next, substitute a barre on the second fret created by the third finger:

[Insert chart]

Now slide the third finger barre upon one fret and add a first finger barre:

[Insert Bb major barre chord chart]

This creates a Bb major barre chord. The first finger is again used as an index but in this case, it is the position of the finger on the 5^{th or A string that marks the tonic of the chord. With all strings depressed, the chord becomes moveable as with the E shape. Here are some examples:}

A to Bb

[Insert charts]

Amaj7 to Bbmaj7

[Insert charts]

Am to Bbm

[Insert charts]

Am7 to Bbm7

[Insert charts]

A7 to Bb7

[Insert charts]

c) The D Shape

The D shape differs from the E and A shapes in two ways. It does not employ a barre nor are the 5th and 6th strings sounded. The D shape is based upond the D major chord in the first position:

[Insert charts]

This chord is made moveable by adding the fourth finger to the chord:

[Insert charts]

This formation can now be used to move up and down the neck to create other major chords. The same procedure may be applied to the 1st position formation s of:

Dmaj7 to Ebmaj7

[Insert charts]

Dm to Ebm

[Insert charts]

Dm7 to Ebm7

[Insert charts]

D7 to Eb7

[Insert charts]

Finally, it should be stated that the same strategy can be use to create moveable (mostly barred) fourths, suspendeds, sixths, ninths, altered ninths, elevenths, thirteenths, augmented and diminished chords.

II. Theory

It has been my experience as an instructor to find that guitarists are often somewhat intimidated by theory. Some out of frustration become anti-theoretical wrongly believing that theoretical knowledge necessarily detracts from the spontaneity of musical expression. It is true that guitarists can become overly theoretical and that a haphazard presentation of theory is likely to produce confusion and frustration. In what follows, I hope to provide a simple, systematic presentation of the basics of harmonic and melodic theory. My primary intention is to present a bare minimum of practical theory as it applies to improvising.

"Diatonic" literally means, "through the tone." In this usage, the "tone" refers to that foundational note that plays a determining role in relation to the other tones of the diatonic scale. "Through" the tone seems to mean that the other tones of the scale "pass through" or are interconnected to the foundational tone. This rather cryptic etymological definition is better understood once the theory is explained.

We begin with the C major scale:

[Insert C major scale]

C is the tonic, the fundamental key-defining tone. Think of it as a seed. We then generate a C major scale given above which may be thought of as the branch. If we superimpose thirds on each note of the scale we create seven different triads or chords that may be thought of as the leaves:

[Insert diatonic chords]

Many forms of popular and jazz music use an extended set of diatonic chords. It is extended by superimposing another third upon these triads:

[Insert extended diatonic chords]

To summarize, the creation of these seven chords based upon a [major] scale establishes a special diatonic relationship between the tonic and the other six notes in various harmonic relationships. They are harmonically interconnected with the tone. The tone, the scale based upon it, and the chords generated by the consistent superimposition of thirds establish a harmonic configuration. In practical terms of improvising, this means that any of the seven notes of the major scale may be played against any of the seven diatonic chords and remain "in key."

Exercise

Play the C major scale against the seven diatonic chords here designated conventionally by roman numerals to denote harmonic functions in different keys:

C Dm Em F G Am Bm-5

I IIm IIIm IV V Vim VIIm-5

B. Consonance and Dissonance

Observe that in the exercise above, although the same seven notes are being sounded, the character of the note changes according to its interaction with its harmonic context. For example, a C note played against a C chord will sound differently when played against the other diatonic chords such as a Dm or an Em and so on. How shall we understand this changing dynamic and what is it about it that is important for improvising? This can be done by first arranging the major scale in terms of a hierarchy in which each of the seven notes are placed in a consonance-dissonance spectrum:

C o n s o n a n c e | D i s s o n a n c e

C G E B F A D

1 5 3 7 4 6 2

Note that:

1-5-3- 7- 4-6-2.

Exercise

To accompaniment playing a harmonic background of just a C chord (C-E-G) repeated slowly, play the sequence 1-5-3-7-4-6-2 against the chord, noting the degree of dissonance each note emits.

Play a simple melody using the C major scale against a C chord. Try to create and resolve various degrees of tension by your choice of notes.

C. Shifting Note Value in the Diatonic Relationship

I have noted that the seven notes of the major scale can be ranked according to their dissonance when played against a C chord. What happens when these notes are played against the other diatonic chords? The charts below rank the notes in the context of each of the diatonic chords:

C E G B F A D

D A F C G B E

E B G D A C F

F C A E B D G

G B D F C E A

A E C G F B

B F D A E G C

Exercise

It is important to be able to locate the triads of the diatonic chords on the entire fretboard! The following exercises are extended perhaps lifetime projects. They will aid you in learning the fretboard in terms of chord "outlines." They will mark your tonal center in the various neck positions.

Play the first three notes of the sequence of all fingerings in G.

Play the first four notes of the sequence in all finger positions in G.

Try the same exercises in all other keys. Start with A and then move to other keys as you are able to transpose.

D. Improvising Over Diatonic Chord Progressions

Because it is important to translate theory into any key, the seven main diatonic chords have been labeled above with roman numerals. This aids harmonic analysis and the translation of chord changes into other keys. For example, the I chord in C is C while the 1 Chord in G is G. Compare the seven diatonic chords in C with the same in the key of G:

C Dm Em F G Am Bm-5

I IIm IIIm IV V VIm VIIm-5

G Am Bm C D Em F#m-5

Notice that although the chords have changed, the new set of chords has the same diatonic relationship to G as the first set had to C. Only the key has changed. Otherwise, the new sets of diatonic chords in G have same function as they did in the key of C.

Exercise

In this exercise, we will improvise over a simple diatonic chord progression in G known as a IIm-V-I. In G, this would be Am-D-G. Play the G major scale in the first position over the chord progression, listening for the interaction of the notes of the scale against the chord changes.

Outline the chord changes (play the 1-3-5 of the chord) as the progression cycles through the three chord changes. Note that outlining the chord adds emphasis to the chord change.

Experiment further. Try playing the extended chord arpeggio (1-3-5-7) over the chord changes.

E. Diatonic Chord Progressions

Effective improvising requires that the guitarist have a basic understanding of chord functions and chord progressions. A chord progression uses the harmonic value of chords to create and resolve musical tension. Musical tension is created by sounding mostly dissonant tones while musical resolution is created by sounding consonant tones. Therefore, a progression "progresses" from the creation of audio dissonance to consonance. Accordingly, the most basic progression is one that moves from the V chord to the I chord or also from a IV chord to the I chord.

From a harmonic functional point of view, the seven diatonic chords fall into three classes:

Tonic: I, IIIm, VIm

Sub-dominant: IIm, IV

Dominant: V, VIIm-5

In terms of consonance-dissonance, the tonic are the most consonant, the sub-dominant emit more dissonance and the nts are the most dissonant. Chord progressions create, extend and resolve tension through these three functions. Sub-dominants stand half way between the consonant the dissonant tonic and nt chords and thus "extend" the coming to a musical resolution. It is important to note that as such, these extending sub-dominant chords are optional since tension and resolution can be created without using them.

Exercise

These progressions are based on the progression from sub-dominant to te to tonic. Listen for the comparative dissonance that the various chords generate as you play them. Also, listen to the chord progressions that generate tension (sub-dominate), add more tension % te) and finally resolve the tension (tonic).

[Insert chord charts in G after each]

IIm-V-I

IIm-V-IIIm

IIm-V-VIm

IV-V-I

IV-V-IIIm

IV-V-VIm

IIm-VIIm-5-I

IIm-VIIm-5-IIIm

IIm-VIIm-5-VIm

IV-VIIm-5-I

IV-VIIm-5-IIIm

IV-VIIm-5-VIm

Exercise

Create your own diatonic chord progressions. Try something like I-VIm-IIm-V and substitute related chords in all four changes. After creating some chord progressions, practice your soloing skills by outlining the chords and then playing melody lines over the changes.

F. Modes

Related to diatonic theory is the concept of modes. In my tree analogy, you may think of them as the fruit. These modes are constructed in a systematic way so that they relate inherently to the diatonic system. The seven modes are constructed by playing seven notes beginning on each degree of the major scale:

[Insert notes of modes after each]

Thus, there is a direct relationship between the modes and the diatonic chords:

So we see that the diatonic relation is based upon a scale with its foundational tone or tonic. In our example and for the purposes of the construction of a , the C major scale became the basis to generated seven diatonic chords and seven corresponding diatonic modes. I have emphasized that although only seven notes are involved, these notes change value within the diatonic system as they are played against varying harmonic backgrounds. Understanding and controlling these dynamics are important for improvising effectively and exploiting the potential of the diatonic system.

G. Improvising over Chromatic Chord Changes

It is common in music composition to use non-diatonic or chromatic notes in chords and in melody lines. The effect is the creation of more dissonance contained within a strictly diatonic composition. This is so because chromatic elements stand outside of the tight diatonic system.

It is not difficult to understand how one should approach soloing over non-diatonic chord changes. Here is a simple example to show how it is done. Begin with the simple diatonic progression of IIm-V-I in C:

[Insert charts of Dm-G-C]

A common non-diatonic or chromatic change is to substitute a II for and IIm. Now the only difference is that the II major chord replaces an F with an F#. So one would simply build a solo on a C major scale except that an F# rather than an F would be played. Theoretically, that is all there is to it.

Exercise

Select a song written in the key of C major and which does not modulate. Go through the chord changes and identify both the diatonic and chromatic chord changes. Note how the chromatic changes alter the C major scale. Now you are prepared to solo over all the chord changes.

H. Playing the Blues

Blues chord progressions are interesting in that they take the V chord of the diatonic scale, extend it with an additional third, and use the V7 as the I7. Theoretically, the scale used is the Mixolydian mode and this is sometimes used, especially in jazz. However, what is more common is to use either a minor pentatonic (this five note scale would be 1-2-4-5-6) or the "Blues Scale" (1-b3-4-b5-5-b7). Since a strict minor pentatonic can seem somewhat uninteresting, it is common to enhance it with passing notes. These scales are played over the standard 17(9)-IV7(9)-V7(9) blues progression.

Exercise

Try playing to a blues progression first with the blues scale and then with an enhanced pentatonic scale. Then try mixing the two. Recall that the phrasing is especially important when playing the blues. Breathe out your phrases and rest to inhale before the next.

I. Whole Tone and Diminished Scales

I have previously mentioned a method of playing over non-diatonic or chromatic chord changes. In the case of augmented and diminished chords, special scales have been developed to play over these chords and thus provide another option for handling these changes. The whole tone scale, which is used over augmented chords, is so named because all the intervals of the scale are an interval of a whole step. So in C, the scale would be C-D-E-F#-G#-A#. Furthermore, as far as the notes are concerned, there are only two sets of notes used to construct all of the whole tone scales. In addition to the scale just given, starting on C# instead of C would produce the second set, "filling in" the notes otherwise not played with the first scale.

The diminished sale is so named because it is played over diminished chords. It also has a certain symmetry in that the scale is constructed by alternating whole and half steps. So in C, the scale would be C-D-Eb-F-Gb-Ab-A-B. Furthermore, it so works out that there are only three sets of diminished scales as we move up before the scale starts to repeat the same pattern.

***

These then, are the basic principles of our simplified theoretical approach to soloing. Although the topic is actually complex, this start will enable the student to understand how to improvise over most musical compositions.

As mentioned earlier, the following observations on aesthetics reflect some of my own philosophical leanings, views which I am not particularly interested in promoting. Rather, my primary concern is to stimulate some thinking by allowing the student to interact with the following discussion. Although the issues reach beyond guitar playing, I remain convinced that it is important for guitarists to think about musical composition in some larger, conceptual or philosophical context that I am here calling "aesthetics."

Concerning aesthetics and music as it relates to the instrumentalist, I share with Structuralism that holds the view that there are inherent ontological "structures" in nature. A perception and understanding of these structures creates a master paradigm through which to interpret the world. The fundamental character of these "deep structures" is that they are inherently bipolar in character that together as positive and negative interact to produce activity or "life." Such deep structures have been studies across many academic disciples to which I would add that of music.

My aesthetic philosophy is Structuralist in character in that I analyze musical elements within a bipolar spectrum. It is particularly applicable to song composition, melody construction, solo construction and harmonic arrangements. These elements are:

The graph below show the spectrum created across the two poles of the elements:

(-) (+)

1) silence sound

2) repetition variation

3) soft loud

4) sparse dense

5) consonance dissonance

6) low high

7) short long

8) intervalic chromatic

The (-) and (+) columns: silence is the opposite of sound, soft is the opposite of loud and so on. Between the two exists a continuos spectrum of degree. For example, concerning duration of a note, it may not be sounded, or it may be sounded continually, or it may be sounded for say eight beats. In the last case, the duration falls somewhere between the two extremes of silence and continuous sound.

Like most musicians, I try to create music that pleases the ear, first my own and then those of my audience. Reflecting on my musical tastes has shown me that most appreciate music that exploits the full range of the spectrum listed above. In other words, I enjoy and therefore try to create music in which sound and silence, repetition and variation, softness and loudness and so on interact in variety of relationships. As a rule, I try to avoid extremism and narrowness. In these, I am essentially seeking to exploit the full spectrum of musical elements. Although this approach may initially seem rather intellectual and detached, with practice the exploitation of these musical elements becomes increasingly intuitive. They may also be written into the song.

In this section I will seek to apply the foregoing conceptual discussion to spontaneous musical composition, commonly called improvising solos. To help the student apply this material, a discussion of each of the eight polarities will be related to solo improvising.

The creation of music necessarily involves the musician with a fundamental polarity-sound and silence. Both exist together to one degree or another and at any time during a musical performance. The musical dynamic of silence is understandably and easily overlooked.

Composer/Soloist should think about the relative amount of sound and silence in their compositions. If there is too much silence, the ear becomes bored-if there is too much sound, the ear becomes fatigued. Sound and silence are most effective when they heighten and thus contrast one another. When that balance is achieved, "activity" is at its greatest. This same principle guides the application of the other polarities: balance generates activity and activity satisfies the ear.

For instrumentalists, the interplay of sound and silence becomes important concerning musical phrasing. A phrase is a part of a solo of sounded tones separated by a duration of silence. In this regard, it is much like speech. The speaker must stop speaking to breathe and this pause separates his phrases from one another. Artful phrasing humanizes a solo.

Unfortunately, guitarists do not have to stop to breathe! Perhaps this is why effective instrumental phrasing is rare among guitarists. But silence is not to be avoided. On the contrary, it is to be exploited as is the polar counterpart-- the sounded note.

By repetition, I mean the repeated sounding of the same note(s). The instrumentalist should control the interplay between repetition and variation. Listening to guitar solos has convinced me that guitarists generally shy away from repetition in a guitar solo. Repetitive ideas tend be regarded negatively and one senses and over concern with novelty and endless variation in solo lines.

On the other hand, the ear grows weary of too much repetition. Only the right amount of repetition has the effect of satisfying the ear’s desire for predictability and allows for expectation gratification. A balance should therefore be sought in combining repetitive and novel musical ideas. When balanced, repetition and variation enhance one another.

Bu volume, I am referring to the volume of the instrumentalist in the context of a larger musical context, say a live rhythm section. The volume of the group as a whole, particularly when soloing, will set the parameters of the guitarist’s volume. However, within these parameters, an effective guitar solo will exploit volume dynamics, sounding a combination of soft and loud notes so that each enhances the other. This enhancement will not only contribute to the dynamism of the guitar solo but will also enhance the total sound of the musical context. A mono-volume level fails to exploit the musical and creative potential of the full spectrum of volume dynamics. When soloing, especially electric guitarists tend to fail to make creative use of softer notes, often because the volume of the rhythm section will not allow it. There is a strong bias to play more loud notes or to play all the notes at the same volume. Both practices weaken the artistic effect.

By intensity, I mean the amount of notes played within a given time frame. For example, an instrumentalist may play two notes in one measure or sixteen in another. The former is to play sparsely while the latter one is to play densely. Most guitar soloing seems to be characterized by a dense handling of guitar tones. With the exception of some older blues guitarists, contemporary solos reflect a tendency to ignore sparse guitar phrases. Ironically, this bias has the effect of weakening the impact of the dense phrasing. Just as a monotonous volume level will produce boredom, so an overuse of dense phrasing will produce a flat sound. Intense guitar phrasing is most intense when executed in contrast to a sparser articulation of notes that either precede or follow it.

In the previous discussion of theory, we observed that the notes within a scale or mode, the notes have different harmonic values in terms of the amount of dissonance they generate. The soloist should become aware of the amount of dissonance that a solo is creating. An overabundance of dissonance is hard on the ear. Yet, an excessive about of consonance is unexciting. A dynamic solo will produce an interplay of consonance and dissonance in the proper proportions.

The instrument itself determines the pitch potential of an instrument. Almost all guitars are able to sound close to or up to five octaves. Guitarists, usually because of poor technique, exploit only a few of these lower octaves or jump between the middle and upper registers. Yet, it is obvious that they should try to cover the full range of their instrument in order to build a contrast between the sounding of low and high notes, not just because they are there but for musical dynamics as well.

A tone may be analyzed in terms of duration, that is, in terms of the length of time that a tone is sounded. In conventional musical terms, melodies are usually composed of a mixture of whole, half, quarter, eighth, sixteen, thirty- second and sixty-fourth notes. Although guitar soloists are not customarily aware of the note values when playing a solo, the notes that they play could be translated into formal musical notation. I am not here advocating that soloists become aware of the note value of their solos. What they should become sensitized to is the creation of a pleasing balance between the use of long and short tones. The transition between one pole and the other can be sudden and dramatic or it can be realized more gradually. Either way, both ends of the spectrum are exploited for creative purposes.

Here I am referring to the intervalic relationship between subsequent tones. On the left side of the scale, we place those sequences of notes that construct intervals larger than a half step and which are diatonic. On the right side, we locate half step or smaller (as in a slur) chromatic sequences. In practical terms, this might mean that one constructs a solo with say a series of thirds, fourths or fifths that become complemented with a chromatic riff built on whole and half steps. Near and far intervals mixed together add much interest to a solo since it is rare to hear either chromatic runs that based on an interval greater or less those of the scale employed. Chromatic riffs along with broken arpeggios may be two ways to escape solos that simply move up and down the scale in sequence.

The foregoing has urged the view that a balanced interaction of opposing musical elements sparks a type of energy or activity that satisfies the ear. These ideal compositions, whether spontaneous or composed, range the full spectrum of musical possibility and create balanced interactions between the musical polarities enumerated above. In this section, we look at the overall structure of a solo. By far, the most common structure follows a threefold format: 1) the solo builds; 2) the solo climaxes; 3) after which it may simply stop or quickly trail off. In terms of our spectrum, a solo starts somewhere on the left side, moves toward the right and returns near to its starting point. It is no coincidence that the structure of a solo emulates the act. Music is essentially ual in nature.

As a musician who has been called upon to do considerable solo work in the thirty-five years that I have been playing professionally, I have given much thought to what "works" creatively and what does not. Because of this self-reflection, I have been concerned with what may be called the "creative moment." These moments are those all-too-rare times when during a solo I am able to generate novel, spontaneous musical expressions. Anyone who has experience these moments knows that these, unfortunately, are elusive in nature. It is difficult to remain continually tapped into that internal fountain of creativity that brings our best creative expressions. Let me venture some brief comments on this difficult subject.

It is not difficult to conclude that creativity and consciousness are closely related. Indeed, I prefer two think of creative aspect as a mode of consciousness. By "mode of consciousness" I mean how one directs or focuses one’s consciousness while playing. As one who obviously values a conceptual and theoretical approach to playing, I have had to try rigorously to discipline my consciousness. In what way? To squelch the temptation to bring my practice mode of consciousness to the stage. There I do not wish to "practice" before an audience but to direct my consciousness to the music. The mode is intuitive rather than conceptual. What conceptual knowledge I do use has been already inculcated. It is rather like learning a language. While I am learning, I analyze, memorize and so on. But eventually I just speak freely and spontaneously with no recourse to thoughts about grammar and vocabulary. So with live musical performances. It is time to lay aside the conceptual lessons and draw upon what you have already made your own as you seek to let the audience and the music inspire your best creative expressions.